Tina Zhang
“Energy Here, Nature There” :
The Environmental Toll of Powering Our World
Environmental Degradation
Climate Change
If you follow global headlines—ranging from greenhouse gas emissions to oil spills, mining disasters, and corporate scandals—it is easy to conclude that energy systems appear fundamentally at odds with the natural world. The extraction, production, and distribution of energy fuels human progress, but often at the cost of ecological degradation such as deforestation, biodiversity loss, pollution, and climate change.
Coal
Coal was the dominant energy source of the 19th and 20th centuries and remains significant today, accounting for approximately 26% of global energy consumption in 2023. It powered the industrial revolution—driving steam engines, railroads, and factories—but also inflicted deep and lasting environmental damage.
Coal mining drastically alters landscapes and ecosystems. In the Appalachian Mountains of the U.S., mountaintop removal mining blasts away entire summits to access coal seams. This method has flattened more than 500 mountains and buried over 2,000 miles of streams, resulting in the loss of headwater habitats and the release of toxic runoff contaminated with heavy metals, which threatens aquatic life. By 2012, an estimated 1.4 million acres of forest—an area larger than the state of Delaware—had been cleared in Appalachia alone. The deforestation not only destroys wildlife habitat but also erases vital carbon sinks, transforming once-thriving ecosystems into degraded, treeless zones.
Coal combustion is also a major driver of climate change. In 2024, coal accounted for 45% of global CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion. Compared to oil and gas, burning coal releases significantly more CO₂ per unit of energy. China and the United States together are responsible for nearly 60% of global coal-related CO₂ emissions, with India ranking third. While coal use is declining in the U.S., it remains a staple in many developing countries due to its low cost, abundant reserves, and ability to provide reliable, on-demand power—particularly in regions where access to clean energy remains limited.
This global dependency on coal presents a critical challenge: reconciling the immediate need for affordable energy with the long-term consequences of climate change. Supporting the transition to clean energy in the developing world is essential—not only to reduce emissions but also to prevent new coal-reliant systems from being locked in for decades to come.
Mountaintop Removal Mine. Photo by Kent Mason.
Source: appvoices.org.
OIL AND GAS
The oil and gas industry is one of the largest contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions. In 2022, the production, transport, and processing of oil and gas—also known as Scope 1 and 2 emissions—resulted in 5.1 billion tonnes (Gt) of CO₂-equivalent, accounting for nearly 15% of all energy-related GHG emissions. Even more significantly, the end-use combustion of oil and gas products contributes an additional 40% of global energy-related emissions, underscoring the sector’s central role in the climate crisis.
Beyond emissions, oil and gas infrastructure poses acute environmental risks. The 2010 Deepwater Horizon disaster released over 4.9 million barrels of oil into the Gulf of Mexico, causing widespread marine and coastal damage. More recently, the 2022 Nord Stream 2 pipeline explosion—suspected to be an act of sabotage—unleashed approximately 485,000 tonnes of methane, a potent greenhouse gas, which was the largest human-caused methane emissions event in history. The underwater blast also killed marine life within a 4-kilometer radius, damaged the hearing of animals up to 50 kilometers away, and stirred 250,000 tonnes of contaminated seafloor sediment containing toxic substances like lead and tributyltin.
Geopolitical instability further exacerbates environmental risks. As oil and gas infrastructure becomes increasingly entangled in conflict, sabotage, and power struggles, the likelihood of large-scale environmental damage rises—highlighting the urgent need to both decarbonize and secure global energy systems.
Oil gathering above the Deepwater Horizon wellhead on May 6, 2010. The oceanographer Ed Levine said, “With all of the skimmers in the world out there, you might as well be using thimbles.”Photograph by Daniel Beltrá. Source: The New Yorker
Read more on: National Geographics
Nuclear
Nuclear power plants do not produce direct carbon dioxide emissions, which make it a promising energy source to help decarbonize electricity and support the world to reach the 2050 net zero target. However, its promise comes with persistent environmental and political challenges.
One of the most critical concerns is radioactive waste management. Nuclear reactors generate toxic byproducts—including spent fuel rods and contaminated cooling water—that remain hazardous for thousands of years. Although most waste is stored in specially designed containment systems, failures in waste handling or disposal can lead to severe health and environmental consequences.
A recent example is Japan’s controversial plan to discharge treated radioactive water from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant into the Pacific Ocean. While Japanese officials assert that the treated water meets international safety standards, the move has provoked widespread concern both domestically and internationally, especially from neighboring countries and coastal communities. The case highlights the technical and political complexity of long-term waste management. (See: BBC reporting on Fukushima wastewater).
While major nuclear accidents are rare, their consequences can be catastrophic. The 1986 meltdown at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant—in what is now Ukraine—stands as a sobering reminder. Beyond the tragic human casualties, the environmental consequences have endured for decades. Scientific studies have shown that the mutation rates in local plants and animals have increased up to 20 times due to radioactive contamination. The fallout also disrupted local weather patterns, leading to increased precipitation in some areas. Today, a 30-kilometer exclusion zone remains largely uninhabitable.
As the saying goes, "nuclear energy is generally safe—until it's not." While the statistical likelihood of a meltdown is low, the potential for irreversible damage demands serious consideration in energy planning.
Piglet with dipygus on exhibit at the Ukrainian National Chernobyl Museum Source: Wikipedia.
Wind
Wind turbines harness a renewable resource – wind – but their presence can affect wildlife, especially birds. Modern wind farms often consist of hundreds of tall turbines spread across open lands or offshore. One prominent concern is bird collisions with the spinning turbine blades. In the United States, where wind energy has grown rapidly, studies estimate that wind turbines currently kill over half a million birds annually.
It’s worth noting that compared to other human-related causes of bird deaths (collisions with buildings and vehicles, pet cats, etc.), wind turbines are a relatively small fraction. Nonetheless, for certain threatened bird populations (like eagles or condors), even modest additional mortality can be significant. Wind farm operators and conservationists are exploring solutions – from smarter siting of turbines away from key habitats, to radar systems that shut down turbines when flocks approach, to blade designs and colors that deter birds.
Apart from collisions, wind projects can impact wildlife via habitat disturbance. Constructing turbine towers and access roads in wilderness areas may fragment habitats for animals on the ground. Offshore wind farms, meanwhile, introduce noise and structure into marine environments; studies are ongoing about their effects on sea birds, fish, and marine mammals
Another hidden impact of wind technology is in its supply chain: wind turbines rely on specialty materials, including rare earth metals like neodymium for powerful magnets. About 90% of rare earths are mined and processed in China, often with severe environmental damage – unregulated rare earth mining has led to toxic waste ponds, water contamination, and even radioactive pollution in mining regions. Thus, a wind turbine erected in a field in Europe may carry with it an environmental burden from mining in Inner Mongolia, China. These upstream impacts are often “out of sight” for consumers enjoying clean energy. In sum, wind power is far cleaner for air and climate than fossil fuels, but it illustrates the trade-off of renewable energy: local and upstream ecological disturbances in exchange for global environmental benefits.
Photo by Anda Mikelsone/Shutterstock Source: abcbirds.org.
SOlar
Utility-scale solar farms require extensive land – roughly 5–10 acres per MW of capacity – meaning a large installation can span square kilometers. This footprint often displaces habitats – a Mojave Desert array covers an area the size of downtown San Francisco, with all vegetation removed – and such transformations can be irreversible, fragmenting wildlife habitats. Around the world, similar concerns arise when solar projects replace natural ecosystems or farmland.
A typical solar PV panel is about 76% glass, 10% polymer, 8% aluminum, 5% silicon, 1% copper, and less than 0.1% silver by weight. Solar panels rely on resource-intensive manufacturing. The main ingredient, silicon, is refined from quartz in high-temperature furnaces. For example, producing one ton of polysilicon can create 3–4 tons of hazardous silicon tetrachloride waste, which must be managed to avoid soil and water contamination. Panel manufacturing is also water-intensive: one study found about 20,000 liters of water used per kW of panels produced.
Solar panels typically operate for 25–30 years, after which end-of-life disposal becomes a challenge. Without effective recycling, millions of retired panels could end up in landfills. Forecasts suggest about 8 million metric tons of PV panels will accumulate as waste by 2030, and around 80 million tons by 2050. Yet today less than 10% of end-of-life panels are recycled. This raises concerns about toxic materials leaching from discarded panels and wasting valuable resources.
Recycling programs are ramping up. Innovations in panel design are also helping; today’s solar cells use about 50% less silver and silicon than a decade ago, easing pressure on mining. To reduce land conflict, installing panels on rooftops or brownfield sites avoids harming ecosystems. With planning, energy here need not mean harm to nature there.
A fork-lift drops solar panels in a heap. Photo by Laurent Julliand Source: BBC.
hYDRO
Hydropower is often championed as a low-carbon alternative to fossil fuels, yet it exemplifies the ecological contradictions of modern energy systems.
Building a hydroelectric dam radically alters river ecosystems: vast areas are flooded to create reservoirs, destroying forests and wildlife habitat – for example, Brazil’s Balbina Dam submerged 2,360 km² of Amazon rainforest for only 250 MW of power – and the dam itself fragments the waterway. This disruption is severe for aquatic biodiversity, as blocking migratory routes for fish and other species leads to population declines. Globally, migratory freshwater fish populations have plummeted by about 81% since 1970, with river fragmentation by dams identified as a major driver of this decline.
Dams also impede the natural flow of sediment, starving downstream channels and deltas of nourishment. Studies estimate that in heavily dammed regions, nearly half of a river’s sediment load can be trapped by reservoirs, contributing to erosion of riverbanks and shrinking deltas. Furthermore, hydropower’s low-carbon reputation belies significant greenhouse gas emissions from reservoirs. When organic matter in flooded areas decomposes it releases carbon dioxide and methane; in the Amazon basin, some mega-dams have been called “methane factories” for their high CH₄ output. One global analysis found that reservoir surfaces emit around 0.8 gigatonnes of CO₂-equivalent per year (~1.3% of anthropogenic GHG emissions).
Thus, while hydropower helps meet energy needs, its legacy of disrupted ecosystems, biodiversity loss, sedimentation issues, and hidden emissions underscores the environmental cost of powering our world.
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